Background

Somalia’s modern history started with the interest of various European powers during the late 19th Century. The British East India Company initially showed interest eventually taking control of a British Somaliland. However, Italy also had interest in the region establishing a territorial claim in the area. The Second World War saw the Italians the British fighting for control over Somalia, foreshadowing the decades of more conflict the future would bring [1] [2].

At the end of the war, the United Nations placed both colonies under an international trusteeship until 1960. Later that year, the British territories were granted their independence combining with the Italian colony five days later [1]. The next year, Somalia adopted a national constitution paving the way for a democratic state. However, Somalia politics has always revolved around the idea of clans providing recognition, status, prestige, justice, and equality to individuals [6]. The new government failed to take into consideration the traditional culture of Somalia, leading to a great increase of internal tensions between the different clans because of the unfair distribution of government positions and power [6]. The Prime Minister Mohamed Ibrahim Egal, 1967-1969, tried to also create better relations with the regional powers, namely Ethiopia and Kenya. Though, Ethiopia was considered as the traditional enemy of Somalia, inspiring the military to execute a bloodless coup in 1969 removing Egal from power [1]. Major General Mohamed Siad Barre then took power through the Supreme Revolutionary Council disrupting the party-based constitutional democracy in Somalia.

Barre believed in the ideas of “scientific socialism” closely aligning himself both ideologically and economically with the Soviet Union [2] [6]. He centralized the government, reduced political freedoms, and used military force in order to consolidate his political power base. At the same time, tensions along the Somali-Ethiopian border rose after the rise of another Soviet Union dependent regime in Ethiopia. In 1977, Somalia invaded in an attempt to recapture the territory lost after the official borders between the two countries were created [1]. However, the USSR decided to back the new Ethiopian government sending Cuban troops and supplies to help with their defensive cause. As a result, Barre was forced to withdraw his army from the fight and renounced his ties to the Soviet Union. He turned to the West for international support and aid. The United States expressed interest in the country, investing money and supplies into the Barre government [1]. When the Ethiopian Army invaded Somalia in 1982, the US helped coordinate their effort in defense. In addition, the US viewed Somalia as an ally in the context of the Cold War [1] [5].

Though, the Barre regime continued to become more violent suppressing opposition movements and ethnic groups with military force [1]. Soon by the 1980s, internal strife created the perfect conditions for a civil war. Groups such as the Somali Salvation Democratic Front, the Somali National Movement, and the United Somali Congress formed to fight back against the Barre government. Economic crisis brought on by corruption and other issues helped to make the situation worse leading to the complete disintegration of the Somalia Army along clan and ethnic lines [4] [6]. In 1991, these groups forcibly drove Barre out of Somalia resulting in the complete collapse of the remnants of the official government. The different factions dissolved into a civil war with all factions vying for control of the country. With no central power in power, political chaos and widespread famine spread quickly throughout the country [1]. Responding to international pressure, the United States along with other powers under the UN banner launched Operations Restore Hope [2]. This operation was designed to help Somalia recover by delivering emergency supplies and restoring temporary order. Another UN operation followed seeing the US heavily involved until 1994 when they withdrew [2] [7].

Summary of Conflict

The Barre regime fractured Somalia along clan and cultural lines, cutting deep scares into different ethnic groups as a result of his administration’s corruption, and harsh treatments of groups. All of these groups took up arms to remove Barre from power; however none of them had a plan on what to do after they seized control [6]. After 1991, when Barre was driven out, the different factions dissolved into a civil war destroying what little infrastructure existed within Somalia creating large famines and other related issues. The situation was exasperated by the slow and unresponsive reaction from regional powers and the international community [4] [5]. The UN did not officially react until 1993 with the deployment of 500 Pakistani peacekeepers, however they were largely ineffective confined to an airport as a result of not having the authority to seize control from the local militias who were running amok all over the country. In addition, the UN largely ignored the traditional Somalia procedures aiming to deploy soldiers regardless of what the warlords wanted [4] [6]. This destroyed a lot of credibility of the UN leading to mistrust of foreign soldiers in-country.

The United States, under President H.W. Bush, deployed 2,000 marines as part of Operation Restore Hope to secure the major cities and ports in order to bring in supplies to stabilize the country [1]. However, once this objective was secured, the Clinton Administration and the UN attempted to help Somalia rebuild and develop [7]. Initially, the foreign troops were greeted as heroes. However, because soldiers were not instructed to observe local traditions or instructed to make peace with Somalis, the faction controlled by Mohamed Farah Aideed ambushed and killed several UN soldiers [4]. This lead to the US operation to capture and bring Aideed to justice, pushing US army rangers and other special forces in extraordinary danger within the capital city of Mogadishu. They accomplished their objectives, with the exception of capturing Aideed, but becoming embroiled in an intense firefight in the middle of the city eventually having the US send in helicopter and ground convoy reinforcements to rescue the trapped soldiers [4]. The fighting showed the extent of the tensions within Somalia and convinced the US that nation-building was impossible. All US forces withdrew from the country by 1994, while the UN left in 2005 leaving behind a still broken country with varies warlords all competing for power [4] [7].

Somalia in the Present

Somalia in the present has not changed much from the last few decades of infighting between the numerous factions and warlords. After the unsuccessful nation-building program initiated by the US and the UN, the militias were left to their own accords. They continue to fight over territory and resources, unwilling to come to an agreement on supporting a transitional government. There have been approximately 14 national reconciliation conferences sponsored by many different regional and international powers [1] [2]. None of them have led to much success in restoring peace to Somalia, although the most recent meeting did create the Transitional National Government. However, this government does not much have power to control much of what is occurring within the country.

In addition, there is a self-declared “Republic of Somaliland” in the northwest of the country, made up of the former British territories. Puntland, located in the northeast, has also declared itself a semi-autonomous region. Both of these areas have their own elected governments separate from the official administration as well as the factions [2].

Analysis of Critical topics

Somalia started with a constitutional government, however increasing tensions led to General Said Barre rising to power. He used everything in his power to centralize power within his government and to stay in power threatening and killing many. He sided with the Soviet Union, and fought a war with Ethiopia. Siad Barre’s regime along with the government was destroyed in 1991 when opposition forces overran the capital. However, these factions quickly dissolved into fighting each other over territory and resources leading to famine and increasingly disparate conditions.

The US Marines were sent in as the vanguard for Operation Restore Hope. They were deployed in order to restore order enough so that emergency supplies could be brought in to stabilize the country after decades of violence. The United States and the UN was under pressure to help resolve the crisis in Somalia. The US State Department wanted to deploy up to 30,000 coalition troops to distribute humanitarian assistance only, however under President Clinton the mission changed to nation-building.

The US mission succeeded at first stabilizing the country and the famine. However, combined with the UN attempt to create a stable government and the numerous warlords vying for power in Somalia, violence only escalated as mistrust between the Somali militias and the foreign troops increased. When the US and the UN forces left, it left behind a broken country. They let Aidid and the other warlords regain control over the country. They quickly dissolved into a civil war fighting over territory and resources. However, in 2000 a transitional national government was created in order to try to unite the country. In 2004, some of the feuding warlords signed an agreement to create a new government; however the northern “independent” Republic of Somaliland refused to acknowledge the new government. In addition, Puntland has declared itself an autonomous region with its own government as well. Escalating violence also drove out the transition government into exile in Kenya when the Union of Islamic Courts (UIC) seized control of the country. During 2006-2007, a joint force of Ethiopian-Somali ousted the UIC, and the transitional government began operating in Mogadishu again.

Bilbiography