Background

Christopher Columbus visited Panama and claimed it for the Spanish crown in 1502. Because of its geographic location, the country quickly became the crossroads and marketplace of Spain’s empire in the New World. It would remain in Spanish hands for almost 300 years until 1821 when Colombia declared its independence taking Panama as a territory along with it [2]. The colonial experience would spawn Panamanian nationalism as well as a racially complex and highly stratified society [2]. This would prove important to the many internal conflicts later on in the history of Panama.

A French company attempted to build the Panama Canal from 1880 to 1890 but failed. The United States encouraged Panama to seek its independence in 1903 from Colombia seeing an opportunity to gain influence abroad [1] [2]. After Panama became its own country, it granted the US rights to dig the canal, and to occupy a strip of land besides the waterway indefinitely in return for money. In addition, the US made it a stipulation that they would have the right to intervene in Panama’s affairs in order to protect the canal [1].

In 1904, a new constitution was created calling for a democratically based government to be formed. However, political instability lead the US to intervene in 1908, 1912, and in 1918 [2]. During the Second World War, Panama entered on the side of the Allies but incurred inflation and high national debt creating tension against the US occupation of the canal [2]. Nationalists within the country demanded the US to pay more for the usage rights. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the Panamanian military challenged the governments in power eventually leading to the military government under General Omar Torrijos [1] [2]. He was a corrupt, harsh dictator with views leaning towards populist domestic programs, and an anti-US agenda [1] [5]. However, his death in 1981 did not alter the direction of the military dominated political scene. The Panama Defense Force (PDF) continued to rule behind the scenes of puppet civilian governments paving the way for General Manuel Noriega to take control.

Noriega seized power through the National Guard rigging elections to make sure he stayed in control [1] [2]. He stopped at nothing to silence opponents, threatening and murdering them [5]. He was also alleged to be trafficking drugs which led to an indictment against him by a US grand jury in 1988 [1]. The US then started an economic and political campaign to try to force Noriega from power. Economic and military assistance was frozen in addition to freezing all Panamanian Government funds overseas [5]. The elections of 1989 showed an incredibly amount of resistance to Noriega within Panama; however he annulled the election to stay in power. Noriega also “declared war on the United States” and the murder of a US officer accelerated tensions and the need for action to be taken. After a failed coup that did not remove him from power, President George H.W. Bush sent in nearly 26,000 US troops to install Guillermo Endara as the rightful president after it was assumed that he would have won the 1989 elections [1] [2]. The goals of the operation included protecting US lives and property, to fulfill the US treaty to operate and defend the Canal, to restore democracy, and to bring Noriega to justice [1] [3].

Summary of Conflict

General Noriega seized power in Panama by force, silencing any opposition to his rule. He was not afraid to murder and threaten his opponents and to traffic drugs. The United States saw him as a threat to the security of the Panama Canal, and to democracy in Panama [3] [5]. The operation involved a variety of specialized troops ranging from Special Forces to Air-Assault and Airborne units. The military’s initial goals included protecting US lives and key sites/facilities, capture and deliver Noriega to justice, neutralize PDF forces, neutralize PDF command and control, support establishment of a US recognized government, and to restructure the PDF [4]. The 82nd Airborne spearheaded the effort by jumping into the Torrijos International Airport linking up with other ground troops which took Panama City quickly. PDF forces were no match for US firepower and crumbled to the assault with Noriega surrendering.

Panama in the Present

As a direct result of the invasion, General Noriega was brought to justice in the United States. A new civilian constitutional government was reinstated with Guillermo Endara as president. However, the invasion caused much un-necessary damage to the Panamanian economy and infrastructure in addition to civilian casualties [6]. An inappropriate amount of firepower was used to breach various fences, walls, and barred doors heavily hurting the capabilities of Panama to economically recover quickly from the invasion.

As a direct result of the invasion, General Noriega was brought to justice in the United States. A new civilian constitutional government was reinstated with Guillermo Endara as president. However, the invasion caused much un-necessary damage to the Panamanian economy and infrastructure in addition to civilian casualties [6]. An inappropriate amount of firepower was used to breach various fences, walls, and barred doors heavily hurting the capabilities of Panama to economically recover quickly from the invasion.

Analysis of Critical topics

Since the beginning of the 20th century, Panama has been plagued by political unrest. The US has intervened three times in the past before 1989, and has maintained a constant presence in the country with control of the Panama Canal until 2000. General Noriega of the PDF seized power in the 1980s trafficking drugs to the US, murdering political opponents, and rigging elections to stay in power. The US attempted to remove him from power for two years prior to the invasion, using internal coups, economic sanctions, and other methods. Events like Panama declaring war on the US and the murder of a US military personal, helped speed up the timing of the intervention which was already inevitable by this point.

The United States intervened militarily because there was no other option at that point in time. In addition, the US saw Noriega as a threat to the Panama Canal and to democracy in Panama. They had already tried for two years to remove Noriega through cheaper, non-military means using economic sanctions which only hurt the anti-Noriega business community. They also tried to promote internal coups, which failed leading to many US contacts within the PDF to be killed. The Bush Administration also looked weak and indecisive trying to lessen the rhetoric thrown against Noriega, they now believed an intervention had to happen, they just wanted to control when they actually invaded.

The US intervention succeeded in its goal in bringing down Noriega and bringing him to justice within the United States. However, even after instating the rightful winner of the elections, the Endara and subsequent administrations were also plagued by rampant corruption, coup attempts, and the drug trade. In addition, the damage done to the Panamanian economy by Noriega and the US invasion left many homeless and without jobs. However, in 1994 and 1999 free democratic elections were held leading up to the release of the Panama Canal over to Panama in 2000. The son of Omar Torrijos, Martin Torrijos, has brought much more transparency to the Panamanian government and reducing corruption.

Bilbiography